George Mosse, a history and Jewish studies professor at the University of Wisconsin at Madison, spoke yesterday about the evolution of masculine idealism, touching on the obstacle it poses to women and gays.
The speech, titled "Construction of Modern Masculinity," traced the evolution of masculinity in 18th and 19th century Europe.
He defined masculinity as "men asserting what they perceive as their manhood" and stressed several points, most of which focused on the link between appearance and manhood.
"In Germany 1933, those who voted for the Nazis liked the clean-cut soldiers ... they would fit in with the clean-cut Dartmouth fraternity men," he said.
Mosse also spoke about the courage and heroism of idealistic revolutionaries and their "commitment to a higher cause" and "ability to look death in the face."
During the 18th century, anthropologists unearthed classical culture, leading to the incorporation of the Greek sense of beauty into the ideals of masculinity, he said.
"Beauty became something of a substitute for religion for the European middle class," Mosse said.
Quoting 18th century anthropologist Johann Winckelmann, Mosse said "quiet strength" was a virtue of Greek sculpture.
This quiet strength conformed to the energy and order of the Industrial Revolution and the harmony and peace of rational men, he said.
According to Mosse, Winckelmann stressed self-control and a balance between progress and order as essential to masculinity. "He tried to strip nudity of its eroticism," Mosse said.
Mosse said 19th century revolutionary society evaluated the freedom of true men through their ability to endure pain and face death courageously, characteristics that carried over to the 20th century.
"You'd be surprised by how many men in 1914 looked at the war as a way to test their manhood," Mosse said.
Mosse said self-control and a loathing to express sentiment have always driven men to avoid nervousness and emotion.
But Mosse challenged this view of masculinity, asking "What's wrong with being a coward?"
When he asked male audience members if they had cried in public in the last month, three of the roughly 20 men in the room, raised their hands. The speech was attended by about 40 people, but only a handful of students.
The assertiveness of the masculine ideal, Mosse said, propagated a sense of antagonism that has bred disdain for marginalized members of the population.
"Society must always have an enemy," Mosse said, expressing the tendency of masculine men to seek out animosity. As an example, he pointed out the Nazis, who considered most minorities -- those of African descent, Jews, homosexuals, vagrants, gypsies -- as "asocials" fit for genocide.
Mosse said "masculinity remains one of the greatest obstacles to feminism and gay emancipation."
"Women are not outsiders as long as they stay out of the public light ... [and] don't threaten patriarchy," he said. The "new woman," or feminist, brought with her the spectre of gender-bending and threatened the home and the kitchen, Mosse said.
Stereotypes in general, he stated, have contributed to the extension of masculine ideals. Heroes of fiction have been strong, young Christian men. "All the Jews were old ... no young ones," he commented, regarding characters from literature.
But Mosse said, "The manly stereotype is eroding," attributing the change to public culture and feminism.
